Thus, they suggest that γ-PGA might be used to treat Th17-driven autoimmune diseases. In the present study, we found that γ-PGA acting directly on

naive CD4+ T cells regulates reciprocally the mutually exclusive developmental pathways of Treg cells and Th17 cells. Upon TCR/CD28 stimulation in the absence of polarizing conditions, γ-PGA signalling, acting through a TLR-4/MyD88-dependent pathway, favours the induction of aTreg cells. However, in Th17-polarizing conditions it activates a TLR-4/MyD88-independent pathway inhibiting the JQ1 nmr development of Th17 cells. These in vitro effects seem to also apply in vivo, as γ-PGA reduced the fraction of Th17 cells in the inflamed tissue of EAE mice. These findings reveal several novel features of γ-PGA action on CD4+ T cells: the existence of a TLR-4/MyD88-independent pathway of signalling and the novel function of γ-PGA in Treg/Th17 regulation. The TLR-4/MyD88-independent activity of γ-PGA implies the presence of a receptor(s) other than TLR-4. We suspected that TLR-3 was the putative receptor of γ-PGA, as it is the only member of the TLR family that does not signal via MyD88 and its ligands are highly polyanionic, such as γ-PGA [34]. However, this appears not to be the case, because we found that the TLR-3 ligand poly I:C did not affect the polarization

of Th17 cells (data not shown). Our data demonstrate clearly that the effects of γ-PGA signalling include inhibition of the IL-6-driven induction of Th17-specific factors, such as STAT-3, RORγt, IRF-4 and Ahr. Therefore, γ-PGA signals appear to induce click here common inhibitory molecule(s) or co-repressor(s) which inhibit the expression of the above factors. Alternatively, γ-PGA may only target STAT-3, which would in turn affect the expression of genes

encoding RORγt, IRF-4 and Ahr. A recent report identifying these molecules as STAT-3 targets [32] supports this latter idea. Interestingly, unlike other IL-6 target molecules, IL-6-driven induction of SOCS3 was even up-regulated Janus kinase (JAK) by γ-PGA, suggesting that it is γ-PGA signalling that induces SOCS3 expression. Because SOCS3 specifically inhibits the STAT-3 activation that is critical for Th17 differentiation [35], it is also feasible that the γ-PGA effect on Th17 suppression is due, at least in part, to up-regulation of SOCS3. Conversely, γ-PGA-mediated down-regulation of STAT-3 might contribute to FoxP3 induction or vice versa, in view of the evidence that STAT-3 can inhibit the conversion of naive T cells to Treg cells in vivo[32]. In addition to this cross-regulatory pathway involving FoxP3 and STAT-3, we found evidence for a distinct pathway of Th17 suppression that is independent of FoxP3 activity. This γ-PGA signalling pathway is currently under investigation. We found that EAE suppression by γ-PGA was associated with a reduction in the number of Th17 cells in the CNS but not in the spleen.