However, Snail1-induced EMT has been successfully abrogated by a select few chemical inhibitors. LSD and HDAC inhibitors, as well as drugs targeting Snail1/p53 and Snail1/E-cadherin interactions, have shown efficacy (Figure 4, Table 4). Their interactions are detailed below. Figure 4 Structures of chemical inhibitors targeting Snail1. A) GN 25 and GN 29 [175] B) Co(III)-Ebox [176] C) Tranylcypromine [183] D) Trichostatin A [184] E) Pargyline [185] F) LBH589 [186] and G) Entinostat [187]. Table 4 Chemical inhibitors that target Snail1-induced EMT Name Inhibits Effect Known limitations Reference GN25, GN29 Snail/p53 interaction Reduced

proliferation, tumor progression; increased tumor regression Only effective in K-Ras activated cancer GDC-0973 in vitro cells and on wild-type p53 [174,175] Co(III)-Ebox Snail/E-cadherin interaction Increased E-cadherin expression   [176] Tranylcypromine LSD1/LSD2 Decreased Snail’s effects on EMT markers   [177] Trichostatin A HDAC1/HDAC2 Reversed EMT marker expression   [177] Pargyline LSD1 Abrogated see more Snail-induced EMT   [177] LBH589 HDAC Abrogated Snail-induced EMT   [177] Entinostat HDAC Increased E-cadherin and cytokeratin 18 expression, Decreased Twist, Snail, vimentin, N-cadherin; encouraged epithelial morphology; decreased cell migration   [178] K-Ras-induced Snail1 represses p53, a tumor suppressor encoded by the TP53 gene, by binding directly

and inducing exocytosis selleck screening library [174]. Lee et al. have developed two chemical inhibitors, GN25 and GN29, which prevent this binding and thereby protect p53 and its downstream targets, like p21, from Snail1 [175]. In K-Ras-mutated A549, HCT116, HSP90 and MKN45 cell lines, both inhibitors were shown to be effective, though GN25 was more so. GN25 and GN29 also inhibited proliferation with more success than did Nutlin-3, which interferes with p53/MDM2 binding. In vivo studies indicated that the presence of GN25 reduced tumor progression as well as increased tumor regression. While this mechanism did not have cytotoxic effects on normal cells in this study, it does have some limitations. GN25 only activated

wild-type p53 and was not effective in normal fibroblasts and Panc-1 cells. Additionally, this mechanism is effective exclusively in K-Ras-activated cancer cells, not N-Ras/Myc-transformed cells [175]. Harney et al. reported that Co(III)-Ebox, a Co(III) Schiff base complex, interferes with Snail1/E-cadherin binding and thereby inhibits Snail’s repression of the E-cadherin promoter in breast cancer cells [176]. Both the zinc finger region and ability to bind to E-box sequences are critical to this mechanism. With the introduction of Co(III)-Ebox, an increase in E-cadherin gene activity was observed. A 15 nM dose of Co(III)-Ebox achieved maximum results. While Co(III)-Ebox decreased DNA binding, it did not have an effect on Snail1 protein levels in this study [176]. Javaid et al.