Reward systems in resilient individuals may be either hypersensitive to reward or resistant to change despite chronic exposure to neglect and abuse. Mesolimbic dopamine pathways have been shown in reward, motivation, and hedonic tone. The firing pattern of ventral tegmental area (VTA) neurons are sensitive readouts of reward expectations in nonhuman primates. Dopamine neurons increase when rewards occur without being predicted or better than predicted. The neurons show no change when rewards occur

as predicted and decreased activity when rewards are omitted or less than predicted.113 Functional interactions among glutamate, NMDA Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical receptors, dopamine, and dopamine receptors are critical to the proper functioning of reward circuits. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) receives glutamatcrgic input from the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical amygdala and sends glutamatergic projections to the NAc and the VTA. Electrical stimulation of the mPFC is thought to be rewarding because it causes glutamate release in the VTA and dopamine release in the NAc. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical In contrast, the drug of abuse, phencyclidine,

is rewarding due to its antagonism of NMDA-type glutamate receptors in the NAc and mPFC.114 Genetic factors may contribute to sensitivity to the behavior effects of dopamine-enhancing drugs. There may be an endophenotype related to resistance to anhedonia and hopelessness in the face of stress.115 Increasing dopamine function in the NAc, orbitofrontal cortex, and the VTA and NMDA receptor blockade in the NAc and mPFC may enhance sensitivity Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to reward. Therefore, psychostimulants, dopamine reuptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors (selegiline), dopamine receptor agonists (pramipexole), and NMDA receptor antagonists (memantine) may be useful

for treating anhedonia and hopelessness resulting from traumatic stress exposure. There have been almost no studies of the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical functioning of reward-related neurochemistry and neural circuitry in Selleckchem HIF inhibitor anxiety disorders. Such investigations should be conducted and may contribute to our understanding of stress-induced anhedonia and its relationship to the development PD184352 (CI-1040) of anxiety disorders. Neural mechanisms of anxiety and fear Fear conditioning In many patients with anxiety disorders, especially those with PTSD and PD, fear conditioning causes vivid recall of memories of traumatic events, autonomic hyperarousal, and even flashbacks elicited by sensory and cognitive stimuli associated with prior traumas. Consequently, patients may begin to avoid these stimuli in their everyday life or a numbing of general emotional responsiveness may ensue. Resilience to the effects of severe stress may be characterized by the capacity to avoid overgeneralizing specific conditioned stimuli to a larger context (as seen in GAD), reversible storage of emotional memories, and facilitated extinction.