The epithelial cell that supports viral genome amplification, therefore, is subject to differentiation signals and can express well-defined markers of differentiation such as keratins 1 and 10 (cutaneous epithelia) or 4 and 13 (mucosa), while at the same time expressing markers of cell cycle entry, such as MCM, Ki-67, PCNA, CyclinE and CyclinA. Careful analysis suggests that, in the case of the low-risk HPV types, genome amplification begins as the infected cell undergoes cell cycle reactivation in the mid- to upper epithelial layers and enters an S phase-like

state. For the high-risk types, this S phase-like state marks the upper proliferative layers within the neoplasia, rather than a region where cell cycle re-entry has occurred. HPV genome amplification persists as the ‘differentiating’ Linsitinib nmr cell moves from an S-like to a G2-like phase, with viral genome amplification occurring primarily in G2 after cellular DNA replication has been completed this website [131] and [132]. Laser capture experiments in animal models

have shown at least a 2-log increase in viral copy number per cell during the genome amplification phase [95]. In addition to E1 and E2, it is thought that the E4 and E5 proteins contribute indirectly to genome amplification success by modifying the cellular environment, with E5 also being involved in koilocyte formation [133]. E5 is a three-pass transmembrane protein with a cytoplasmic C-terminus [134]. It is believed to possess pore-forming capability and interferes with apoptosis [135] and the intracellular trafficking of endocytotic vesicles [136] and [137]. GPX6 E5 is also thought to make an important contribution to genome amplification success through its ability to stabilize EGFR and to enhance EGF signalling and MAP Kinase activity [138], [139], [140] and [141] and to modulate both ERK 1/2 and p38 independently of EGFR [142] and [143]. The MAP Kinases ERK 1/2 are critical

modulators of nuclear E1 accumulation through the phosphorylation and activation of the nuclear localisation signal within the E1 protein, and their activity is dependent on upstream MAPKs MEK 1/2 and p38. Through both the S and G2-like phases, the accumulation of Cyclins E and A and their associated cyclin-dependent kinase cdk2 further contributes by phosphorylation and inhibition of an E1 nuclear export sequence [144] and [145]. Recent work has suggested that other post-translational modifications in E1 (e.g., cleavage by caspases) also facilitate differentiation-dependent genome amplification, and that the accumulation of E1 in the nucleus may in itself enhance viral DNA replication at the expense of cellular replication through induction of a DNA damage response [146].