Recovery for moving tasks followed a biphasic pattern before reaching plateau levels. Recovery did

not occur for more difficult visual tasks. These findings highlight the ability of multiple sessions of transcranial direct-current stimulation to produce recovery of visuospatial function after unilateral brain damage. Recovery from brain damage is limited in large part by the restricted ability of the central nervous system to structurally regenerate after injury. The recovery that does occur relies on functional reorganisation to change function at the areal level or to promote the activity of secondary pathways that reroute function around the lesion. However, these intrinsic mechanisms rarely produce full recovery. In the last decade, non-invasive Pexidartinib solubility dmso brain stimulation technologies such as transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) have been used to activate functional reorganisation NVP-BEZ235 nmr and promote higher levels of recovery after brain damage (Sparing et al., 2009). TDCS uses weak electric currents to penetrate extraneural tissues, polarise brain regions and influence the ability of neurons to fire. While the precise neural effects of tDCS are highly complex and likely to depend on factors such as the orientation of somatodendritic

and axonal axes relative to the electric field as well as non-linear effects of stimulation intensity (Bikson et al., 2004; Radman et al., 2009; Kabakov et al., 2012; Batsikadze PAK6 et al., 2013), placing the anodal tDCS electrode over a brain area is generally thought to induce a lasting increase in brain activity under the electrode, while cathodal tDCS generally reduces neural excitability (Bindman et al.,

1964; Purpura & McMurtry, 1965; Nitsche & Paulus, 2000; Stagg & Nitsche, 2011). TDCS effects outlast the period of stimulation and, as with other neurostimulation techniques, a greater number of stimulation sessions is thought to increase the efficacy and size of the effect (Valero-Cabré et al., 2008; Reis et al., 2009; Afifi et al., 2013; Monte-Silva et al., 2013). This characteristic could be utilised to promote neuroplastic mechanisms and restore function after cerebral damage. However, the potential of multiple sessions of tDCS to restore function after large brain lesions remains to be fully explored. To test the idea that repeated and regular sessions of tDCS promote progressive and lasting recovery of function after brain damage, a well-characterised animal model previously validated for tDCS neurostimulation was used (Schweid et al., 2008). In the visual system of the cat, unilateral damage to the posterior parietal cortex and all contiguous visual areas produces an intractable visual deficit and animals are unable to respond to stimuli in the contralesional visual hemifield (Sprague & Meikle, 1965; Wallace et al.

On arrival, they still complained of itching, episodes of cough, and weakness. P.F. also showed transient urticaria. Eosinophilia was still present (absolute count 8,270 mm−3, 55% for S.F. and 8,700 mm−3, 60% for P.F.). Rhabditoid larvae of S stercoralis were found in one of five stool samples provided learn more by S.F. but in none of the five samples provided by P.F. (using

Ritchie’s fecal enrichment technique). Serology (an in-house IFAT for S stercoralis, with 97.4% sensitivity and 97.9% specificity),6 was positive, at minimum titer (ie, 1/20), only for S.F., whereas P.F. had a negative result. Fecal culture for S stercoralis resulted positive for both. Patients were treated with ivermectin, 200 µg/kg/d for 2 days, repeated after 1 month. All clinical signs disappeared. After 6 months, both patients were asymptomatic, with normal eosinophil count. Serology was found positive at minimum titer (1/20 ) in both patients 1 month after discharge and resulted

negative 3 and 6 months after treatment. We describe here the clinical and biological characteristics of acute strongyloidiasis, in a couple of travelers. This early invasive phase of human strongyloidiasis has never been reported in clinical settings, to our knowledge. Our two patients give the opportunity to more precisely describe this phase of the disease. Strongyloidiasis was probably acquired in Thailand find more where the disease prevalence, depending on the diagnostic technique and population under study, ranges from 2.3 to 19.2% (respectively in schoolchildren from West-Central Thailand and Thai workers who pursue overseas employment).7,8 Patients did not visit any other disease-endemic country before. We identified Koh Samui Island as the most likely site of infection. Indeed no bare skin exposure to humid soil was reported by the patients in Apulia where they came Adenosine from or during travel in Malaysia, Singapore, and Bangkok where the patients always wore shoes. In contrast, during the last 4 days spent in the tourist resort in Koh Samui Island, they reported walking barefoot on the

grass around the bungalow. As Koh Samui is a very important touristic place, we may assume that other exposed travelers could have similarly acquired strongyloidiasis, an infection which goes largely under-reported. Little is known about the clinical manifestations of acute strongyloidiasis. Freedman gives a description of experimental infections in humans.9 Interestingly, he noticed a transient skin reaction at the site of larval entry that appears almost immediately after exposure to the larvae and lasted 1 to 21 days depending on the study. Within 10 days after exposure, a larval migration syndrome or Loeffler’s-like syndrome with pulmonary symptoms (cough, tracheal irritation, and asthma) and skin signs (acute urticaria and itching) may occur.

Potential adjustments of feeding style in a culturally sensitive manner may be addressed at a pre-travel visit. Breastfeeding women and their infants can travel safely, but need special attention to protect the infant. A critical goal is to maintain PI3K inhibitor adequate hydration. Geographic areas where clean water and sanitation are lacking pose particular hurdles to any traveler and are especially difficult for the breastfeeding woman. Careful planning and assessment of local resources are important to preserve the health of infant and mother. The authors thank

Drs I. Dale Carroll and Robert Steffen, and Brenda Phipps, BS, IBCLC, for their thoughtful review of the manuscript and helpful comments. The authors state that they have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“We present a 31-year-old man who, after a Conus textile sting acquired in New Caledonia, developed a cutaneous abscess on a buttock. The abscess was accompanied by pain, paraesthesia, general malaise, and fever. Complete remission was achieved by sodium

hypochlorite packs and oral amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, metronidazole, and tramadol. A 31-year-old man was admitted because of Selleck TGF beta inhibitor an abscess located in the right buttock. The patient stated that the abscess had appeared 2 weeks earlier, during a trip to New Caledonia (South-West Pacific Ocean). The patient claimed that he was snorkeling, when he observed a beautiful shell: he picked it up and put it in the back pocket of the bathing suit. Some minutes later, the patient complained of a burning sensation in the right buttock. Three hours later, a painful swelling appeared in the same area. Two days later, fever (<38°C) and general malaise appeared. Before admission to our department, the patient was unsuccessfully treated at other C1GALT1 centers with topical antiseptics, clotrimazole and hydrocortisone butyrate, and oral paracetamol. Dermatological examination revealed an abscess: it was round, 3.5 cm in diameter, red in color, with two fistulas discharging pus. The lesion was surrounded by erythematous edema, hard in consistency (Figure 1). The patient complained of severe pain, local paraesthesia, and fever (37.8°C). General physical examination

revealed nothing pathological. Laboratory examinations showed leucocytosis (12.700 white blood cells/mm3, with 9.300 neutrophils/mm3), and increase in erythrocyte sedimentation rate (71 mm at the first hour) and C-reactive protein (7.9 mg/L). Bacteriological examinations of the abscess were positive for Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Peptostreptococcus sp. The shell was classified as a 10.3 cm long specimen of Conus textile Linnaeus 1758 (Figure 2). The patient was treated with sodium hypochlorite packs and, on the basis of antibiogram results, with oral amoxicillin/clavulanic acid [minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC): ≤0.03 µg/mL for both Escherichia coli and S aureus; 3 g/d for 10 d], oral metronidazole (MIC: ≤0.

Previous reports had described satisfactory halogenations on the sugar moiety mediated by fluorinase and chlorinase (O’Hagan et al., 2002; Eustaquio et al., 2008). However, these enzymes cannot introduce the halogen into the base moiety. Biosynthesis of purine nucleoside analogues by transglycosylation has been extensively studied (Sinisterra et al., 2010). However, there have been few reports about obtaining pyrimidine nucleosides halogenated on the base moiety using whole cells. In

all cases, conversion rates were < 50% (Pal & Nair, 1997). Microorganism immobilization is a good way to carry out the bioprocess under preparative conditions. Cell entrapment techniques are the most widely used for whole cell immobilization (Trelles et al., 2004). The main advantages of PS-341 this methodology are high operational stability, easy upstream separation, and bioprocess scale-up feasibility. The aim of this study was to obtain 5-halogenated 2′-deoxynucleosides with potential antitumoral activity using a smooth, cheap, and environmentally friendly methodology. We have been able to develop a bioprocess for 5-fluoro and 5-chloro-2′-deoxyuridine HTS assay production using immobilized Aeromonas salmonicida ATCC 27013. Nucleosides and nucleobases were purchased from Sigma Chem. Co. (Brazil). Culture media compounds were obtained from Britania S.A. (Argentine). Chemicals were from Sigma Chem. Co. and Britania S.A. HPLC

grade solvents used were from Sintorgan S.A. (Argentine). Most of the microorganisms were kindly supplied by the ‘Colección Española de Cultivos Tipo (CECT)’, Universidad de Valencia (Spain). Microorganisms were grown until stationary phase in LB medium (5 g L−1 meat extract, 10 g L−1 peptone, and 5 g

L−1 NaCl in deionized water adjusted to pH 7). Cells were harvested by centrifugation for 10 min at 17 500 g, were then washed once with potassium phosphate buffer (30 mM, pH 7), and finally recentrifuged and stored at 4 °C until use. A taxonomic screening with bacterial strains was performed using the following ADP ribosylation factor genera: Aeromonas (10), Bacillus (8), Citrobacter (3), Chromobacterium (1), Enterobacter (6), Escherichia (7), Klebsiella (2), Micrococcus (3), Serratia (4), Proteus (7), and Xanthomonas (4). All microorganisms assayed were non pathogenic for humans. The reaction to select the microorganisms was performed with 1 × 1010 CFU, 10 mM 5-fluorouracil and 2.5 mM thymidine or uridine in 1 mL of potassium phosphate buffer (30 mM, pH 7). Reactions were performed at 30 °C and 200 r.p.m. Samples were taken at 1, 3, 6, and 24 h and centrifuged at 17 500 g during 5 min. Reactions were performed at 30 °C with 1 × 1010 CFU, 2.5 mM 5-fluorouracil and 10 mM thymidine at different phosphate concentration (20–40 mM), pH values (6–8), and shaking speed (100–300 r.p.m.). Reactions were carried out with 1 × 1010 CFU, 2.

, 2001a,b; Garcia-Osta et al., JQ1 cost 2006; Nikitin, 2007), neuroinflammation

(Cardinaux et al., 2000; Ejarque-Ortiz et al., 2007; Straccia et al., 2011; Fields & Ghorpade, 2012), neurogenesis, and neuronal proliferation and differentiation (Cortés-Canteli et al., 2002; Calella et al., 2007; Aguilar-Morante et al., 2011), whereas its role in neuronal survival/apoptosis remains unclear. In fact, C/EBP β induces the expression of genes involved in brain injury and inflammatory processes; it is upregulated after ischemic injury and in a mouse model of hippocampal kainate excitotoxicity, as well as in adult hippocampal neurogenesis (Cortés-Canteli et al., 2004, 2008, 2011; Sandhir & Berman, 2010; Rininger et al., 2012). In cortical neurons, C/EBP β expression is induced after hypoxic stress, supporting neuronal survival by inhibiting p53 (Halterman et al., 2008). On the other hand, C/EBP β induces apoptosis in neuroblastoma through p53 activation (Cortés-Canteli et al., 2002). In primary cultures of rat cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs), high Ca2+ influx through N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors increases ALK tumor nuclear C/EBP β levels and induces excitotoxic neuronal death (Marshall et al., 2003). However, no studies so far have studied the expression of all C/EBP β isoforms in survival/apoptotic conditions. To fill this gap, we used neuronal primary cultures and induced apoptosis, in order

to study the role of C/EBP β isoforms in neuronal survival/death. Primary cultures of CGNs were prepared from 7-day-old Wistar Han Outbred Rat pups derived from a local animal house (Gallo et al., 1987). All animal experiments were authorized

by a local bioethical committee (Protocol no. 17-72-1212), and experiments were carried out in accordance with the European Communities Council Directive of 24 November 1986 (86/609/EEC). Animal health and comfort were veterinarily controlled. For all experiments presented here, a total number of 72 pups were used. Briefly, animals were rapidly anesthetized with an ice-cold treatment, and killed by decapitation; cerebella were removed and dissected from their meninges in Krebs’ buffer containing 0.3% bovine serum albumin (BSA). Cerebella were then dissociated with trypsin at 37 °C for 15 min, and triturated by use of a Pasteur pipette, in a 0.125 mg/mL http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/forskolin.html DNaseI/0.52 mg/mL soybean trypsin inhibitor solution. Dissociated cells were collected by centrifugation, resuspended in Basal Medium Eagle (Invitrogen, DH Breda, NL, USA), supplemented with 2 mm glutamine, 100 μm gentamicin sulfate, 10% inactivated fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen), and 25 mm KCl, and plated in plastic dishes, previously coated with poly-l-lysine (0.01 mg/mL), at a density of 2.2 × 106 cells per 35-mm dish. After incubation for 16 h at 37 °C in a 95% air/5% CO2 (v/v) atmosphere, 10 μm cytosine arabinofuranoside was added to reduce proliferation of non-neuronal cells.

DNA sequence analysis of three clones indicates that the complementing genes are homologous to, but substantially different from, Selleckchem GDC 941 known polyhydroxyalkanaote synthase-encoding genes. Thus we have demonstrated the ability to isolate diverse genes for polyhydroxyalkanaote synthesis

by functional complementation of defined mutants. Such genes might be of use in the engineering of more efficient systems for the industrial production of bioplastics. The use of functional complementation will also provide a vehicle to probe the genetics of polyhydroxyalkanaote metabolism and its relation to carbon availability in complex microbial assemblages. Petrochemically derived plastics are extremely useful materials, and they dominate many sectors of the industrial economy. selleck chemical However, they are inherently costly to the environment. They are produced from nonrenewable fossil fuels, their waste accumulates due to their recalcitrance to biodegradation, and their production cost will likely escalate as oil reserves are depleted. There is much interest in developing viable alternatives to these plastics. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are commonly accumulated bacterial intracellular carbon storage polymers (Steinbüchel & Lütke-Eversloh, 2003; Trainer & Charles, 2006; Keshavarz & Roy, 2010). Their function

is to guard against stresses at the level of nutritional carbon and energy balance. Genetic studies of polyhydroxyalkanaote synthesis have been carried out in several bacteria. The central enzyme, polyhydroxyalkanaote

synthase encoded by phaC, catalyses the polymerization of hydroxyacyl-CoA molecules, driven by the energy released from CoA hydrolysis. These polymers are arranged in the cell as inert granules, complexed with associated proteins. Upon starvation or other stress, they can be depolymerized Endonuclease to provide a source of carbon and energy to sustain the cell. They are thus of central importance to the metabolic functioning of many bacteria. While the most common polyhydroxyalkanaote is poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), the diversity of polyhydroxyalkanaote is significant, with over 150 different possible monomeric constituents present in different combinations within a given polymer (Steinbüchel & Lütke-Eversloh, 2003). This structural diversity is reflected in the wide range of physical properties demonstrated by these polymers. Polyhydroxyalkanaote polymers are being developed for industrial purposes, as biodegradable replacements for fossil-fuel derived plastics, and as materials with unique properties. Major research efforts are focused on developing the ability to produce these materials in an economically competitive manner so that they will be commercially viable. Polyhydroxyalkanaote’s structure is determined in part by polyhydroxyalkanaote synthase’s substrate specificity, and there is considerable interest in determining the basis for such substrate specificity.

The issue of music specificity of the observed associations deserves careful consideration. We made an effort to control a number of external variables that might have influenced the observed correlations. The socioeconomic factors of parents’ education and income, which are known to be associated with brain development (Hackmann & Farah, 2009), were statistically controlled for, as well as the age and gender of the children, and thus cannot explain the observed correlations. Furthermore, only a few children had hobbies or guided activities in addition to the playschool. Therefore,

it is highly unlikely that the associations found in the current study were related to the overall number of hobbies of the children. With regard to music-related external variables, it is important to note that as the children attended Fluorouracil nmr the same playschool and none of them had any additional formal musical activities they were matched JQ1 research buy with respect to the musical activities outside the home. Also, all correlations remained significant when the duration of the playschool attendance and the number of hours spent listening to recorded music were controlled for. Importantly, neither of these factors correlated with the musical activities index or the response amplitudes. Finally, we found no evidence that the

responses of children whose parents were active musicians differed from the responses of children with non-musician parents. In sum, musical activities outside the home, the amount of exposure to recorded music, or the musical background of the parents cannot explain the associations between the musical activities at home and the P3a and LDN/RON amplitudes found in the current study. Participating in guided musical activities outside the home is quite typical for Finnish children and such activities

are offered widely in Finnish kindergartens. Therefore, our subjects do not dramatically differ from the Finnish norm in this regard. It could be nevertheless argued that the results might not be fully generalizable to children who have no musical activities outside the home. Children taking formal music lessons do indeed differ from children without musical training with regard to their perceptual abilities and various cognitive skills (Schellenberg, 2011), which might arguably influence how informal musical activities impact the Thiamet G brain. Still, it should be noted that the musical activities in the playschool were of low intensity and concentrated on enjoyment of musical group activities rather than on specific music-educational goals and cannot be equated with individualized formal training on a musical instrument. Furthermore, the finding that the duration of the playschool attendance was not associated with any of the neurophysiological or questionnaire measures speaks against the suggestion that the associations between the response amplitudes and musical behaviours were modulated by the playschool activities.

Fourth, since individual countries

have their own unique disease epidemiology, vaccine strategies, and macro socioeconomic status, certain results of this study might need to be modified. Enhancing education and knowledge of the public and health professionals is crucial for controlling vaccine-preventable disease. Our study results showed that despite an overall positive attitude toward meningococcal vaccination, there was poor knowledge about meningococcal disease. Promoting education about the disease, especially the mode of transmission, along signaling pathway with the epidemiology and medical management of the disease, could increase vaccination rates and reduce risk. This kind of survey should be adopted in other countries,

and certain results could provide new insights for disease prevention and future research focus. buy R428 Both the governments and travel medicine specialists should work together on developing an education program for this high-risk group other than just requiring vaccination. We would like to thank Miss Chia-Chi Yu for her assistance in this study. We also thank the Centers for Disease Control, Taiwan for kind research support (LA099077-1). The authors state they have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“Over the last 150 years, a little South American fish with alleged unsavory habits has become the stuff legends are made of. With growing visitor numbers to the Amazon basin, the question of whether the animal poses a threat to the many travelers to the region arises. Scientific literature was identified by searching MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, ProQuest, and Google Scholar. The reference lists of all obtained sources served Chorioepithelioma to refine the search, including the original historical writings where obtainable. Nonscientific material was discovered through extensive web searches. First, the current popular understanding of the fish and its interaction with humans are presented followed by an overview of the historical literature

on which this understanding is based. Next, the fish and its supposed attraction to humans are introduced. Finally, this review queries the evidence current medical advice utilizes for the prevention of attacks and the treatment of unfortunate hosts. Until evidence of the fish’s threat to humans is forthcoming, there appears to be no need for considering the candiru in health advice for travelers to the Amazon. International tourist arrivals to South America continue to rise steadily with over 23 million visitors in 2010, an average annual growth of 4.4% over the last 10 years.[1] The increasing interest in nature-based tourism, ecotourism, and adventure tourism reflects in the growing visitor numbers to the Amazon area.

The resulting plasmid (pKX23) was verified by nucleotide sequencing and used as the template plasmid to make the linear recombineering substrate (Fig. 3b). The find protocol linear DNA was used to recombineer in RSW358 strains with pJAK12, pJAK14, or pJAK16. Selection of the recombinants was for Gmr. Transformants numbered > 4000 mL−1 for each,

and as expected, all were white on X-Gal-IPTG medium. Recombinants of pJAK12, pJAK14, and pJAK16 [pKX32 (Spr Gmr), pKX34 (Kmr Gmr), and pKX36 (Cmr Gmr), respectively] were verified by nucleotide sequencing. The aacC1-encoding SalI fragment was removed from each plasmid by digestion with SalI, religation, and transformation. Spr, Kmr, or Cmr transformants were selected, as appropriate for selleck screening library pJAK12, pJAK14, and pJAK16, respectively. As expected, Spr/Kmr/Cmr Gms transformants were blue on X-Gal-IPTG medium. Nucleotide sequencing confirmed the structures. The recombinants were named pJAK12 Blue, pJAK14 Blue, and pJAK16 Blue (Fig. 2b).

We also used the method to construct an oriTIncP-Gmr cassette and to provide the recombineering substrate for targeting it to the cat gene of pSIM9 (Fig. 2c). The template plasmid was constructed from pCR2.1 TOPO using HindIII, BamHI, NotI, XhoI, and XbaI (Fig. 3c). The oriT-encoding PCR product, made from pAA56 with flanking BamHI and NotI recognition sites (Table 2c), was inserted at the TA-cloning site, oriented by PCR with the appropriate primers, and verified by nucleotide sequencing to give pKR1. The aacC1 gene was cloned into NotI- and

XhoI-cleaved pKR1 to give the oriT-Gmr plasmid pKR2. HRI (260 bp) was cloned into HindIII- and BamHI-cleaved pKR2 to give pKR6, and HRII (275 bp) was ligated to XhoI- and XbaI-cleaved pKR6 to give pKR7. The MCS region of pKR7, which should have the elements for the recombineering substrate, was verified by nucleotide sequencing. Plasmid pKR7 was then used to make the recombineering substrate by PCR using primers GNE-0877 P1 and P8 (Table 2c). Gmr selection led to > 4000 colonies mL−1. One typical Gmr Cms oriTIncP pSIM9 derivative (pKR8) was shown by nucleotide sequencing to have the expected structure. In summary, we developed a method for making recombineering substrates with PCR primers that can be ≤ 35 nucleotides long (the ‘short-primer’ method). The method uses restriction endonuclease–based molecular cloning techniques to link GEs and regions of homology to make a recombineering substrate. A downside of the short-primer method is that it takes somewhat longer than the long-primer method to obtain the desired recombinant (about twice as long if the substrate is made from three cloned segments). The HRs of the short-primer method are easily changed to target the GEs to a different site. In addition, cloning of the segments requires that the PCR primers work to give the desired fragment, and each intermediate plasmid can be verified.

coelicolor membrane; therefore, incorrect localization is not the reason for lack of complementation of the Δpmt mutation in IB25. Even though both genes were expressed from the strong and inducible PtipA promoter, hemagglutinin-tagged PmtMtu appeared to be less abundant than hemagglutinin-tagged PmtSco, when expressed in S. coelicolor under full induction Talazoparib chemical structure (to ensure that this fainter band was not due to a difference in the amount of protein loaded, the membrane was stained with Coomassie brilliant blue, Fig. S3). In addition, there appeared to be limited degradation of this protein, presumably related to the fact the S. coelicolor has an abundance of extracellular proteases

(Jayapal et al., 2007). It is unlikely that this slightly lower abundance

is the reason for lack of complementation, because hemagglutinin-tagged PmtSco was able to complement the Δpmt mutation for φC31 plaque formation even in the absence of inducer when expression relied on background PtipA transcription levels, revealing that even low levels of functional Pmt are sufficient for complementation (Fig. S4). The previous result prompted us to look for differences between PmtSco and PmtMtu to search for clues to the nonfunctionality of PmtMtu in S. coelicolor. Protein mannosylation by PmtMtu requires Sec translocation, and it has been proposed that physical interactions between the Sec complex and Pmt explain this requirement (VanderVen et al., 2005); therefore, GSK 3 inhibitor the nonfunctionality of PmtMtu in S. coelicolor could result from its inability to interact with the S. coelicolor Sec translocon. Upon alignment of the Pmt protein sequences from

mycobacteria and Streptomyces species, it was clear that the main difference is the presence in the Streptomyces Pmt sequences, including that of S. coelicolor, of an N-terminal extension. According to the prediction for topology of mycobacterial Pmt, this N-terminal extension should be located on the intracellular side of the membrane (Lommel & Strahl, ID-8 2009; Fig. S5). Because this extension could prove important for Pmt function in S. coelicolor (if, for example, it is required specifically for interaction with the S. coelicolor Sec translocon), we constructed two modified versions of the Rv1002c gene to encode chimeric Pmt proteins and cloned them in pIJ6902; in the first construct (pBL20, Table 1), 55 amino acids of PmtSco were affixed to the N-terminus of PmtMtu, giving PmtMtu + 55, whereas in the second construct (pBL21, Table 1), 178 amino acids of PmtSco, which include the first extracellular loop where acidic residues essential for activity are localized (VanderVen et al., 2005), were substituted for the equivalent N-terminal region of PmtMtu (Fig. S5). When pBL20 was introduced into the Δpmt mutant IB25, no complementation was observed, either for φC31 plaque formation (Fig. 4a, plate 5) or for Apa glycosylation (Fig. 4b and c, lane 5).