In this work, the role of RpoN was investigated under various stress conditions. Notably, significant survival defects selleck chemical were observed when the rpoN mutant was grown

statically (Figure 1), whereas the growth of the rpoN mutant was comparable to that of the wild type in shaking cultures. To assess if the survival defect of the rpoN mutant in static cultures would be mediated by the motility defect by the rpoN mutation, we compared the growth of a flaA mutant with the wild type under the same culture condition; however, the flaA mutant grew as comparably as the wild type (data not shown). This suggests that the survival defect of the rpoN mutant under the static culture condition was not Savolitinib concentration caused by its loss of motility. Instead, the survival defects of the rpoN mutant may be related to the ability to respire under oxygen-limited conditions, because the levels of oxygen dissolved in broth media are lower in static culture than shaking culture. C. jejuni rarely encounters an

active aeration system in its natural habitat (e.g., poultry intestines), AZD8931 which may be more similar to static culture than shaking culture. The rpoN mutation significantly impairs C. jejuni’s ability to colonize the intestines of chicken because of poor attachment of the aflagellated rpoN mutant to the epithelial cells in the intestines [32, 36]. In addition to the loss of

motility by the rpoN mutation, the survival defects in the static culture condition may also be responsible for the colonization defect of the rpoN mutant. Molecular mechanisms of the survival defect in the rpoN mutant are currently being investigated in our group. Because RpoN is known to be important for osmotolerance in some bacteria, such as Listeria monocytogenes [37], resistance to osmotic stress was compared between the rpoN mutant and the wild type. NaCl is a common food additive used to inhibit microbial growth, and significantly impairs the culturability of Campylobacter at concentrations greater than 2.0% [38]. In this work, the growth of C. jejuni was substantially Alectinib solubility dmso inhibited even by 0.8% NaCl (Figure 2A). TEM analysis showed that the wild-type C. jejuni was slightly elongated at high (0.8%) NaCl concentration, whereas the rpoN mutant was significantly elongated compared to the wild type at the same NaCl concentration (Figure 2B). The morphological change was completely restored by complementation (Figure 2B), suggesting the active involvement of RpoN in this morphological change of C. jejuni under osmotic stress. Morphological abnormalities of the rpoN mutant indicate that the rpoN mutant is more stressed than the wild type under the same osmotic stress condition (Figure 2). Morphological changes by osmotic stress have also been reported in other bacteria.

The CARS images of Thy/GO recorded at several wavenumbers are shown in Figure 9. The

bands at 1,365 and 1,670 cm-1 and at 2,930, 3,065, and 3,300 cm-1 are used to obtain the images of two different fragments of the sample. Scans at 2,930, 3,065, and 3,300 cm-1 were done in 50 × 50-μm area and show the typical fragment entirely. All images have a very high contrast with respect to the image at 3,300 cm-1, where the background at non-resonance wavenumber is shown. It should be mentioned on the basis of comparison (Figure 9a,c) that the intensity of the CARS band at 2,930 cm-1 of Thy/GO is higher than that at 1,365 cm-1 (one of the most intensive bands). This fact supports

our assumption regarding VX-680 the interaction between Thy and GO modes. Figure 9 CARS (a,b,c,d,e) images of the Thy/GO complex. So, from the CARS images, it is seen that the Thy/GO complex Flavopiridol chemical structure adsorbed on the glass surface is not as a solid film but rather as flat flakes with lateral size from 1 to 15 μm. It is important to note that the most intensive CARS bands of GNPs and Thy/GO are, respectively, at 2,960 and at 2,930 cm-1. So, it could be supposed that the enhancement of the CARS bands of the Thy/GO complex in the 2,930- to 3,100 cm-1-range is LXH254 mouse connected with the chemical interaction between Thy and GO. The Raman spectra of Thy and oxyclozanide the Thy/GO complex are shown in Figure 10. In the spectra of Thy/GO, the characteristic bands of GO (D-, G-, and 2D-modes) are clearly seen. Also, in the 2,750- to 3,200-cm-1 range, the enhancement and widening of the characteristic

bands of Thy are observed. Importantly, these bands are the features of the CARS spectra as well (Figure 8). Figure 10 Raman spectra of Thy (1) and Thy/GO (2) at λ ex  = 785 nm. (a) In 1,200 to 1,700 cm -1 range. (b) In 2,400 to 3,200 cm-1 range. The modes of GO are labeled by asterisks (*). The assignment of Raman and CARS spectral bands for Thy and Thy/GO complex is presented in Table 3. As a whole, the position of the bands in the Raman and CARS spectra is often close. In the CARS spectrum of the Thy/GO complex, there are NH and CH stretching modes in the 3,000- to 3,300-cm-1 range, and the C6H stretching modes of medium intensity are at 3,065 cm-1. It is interesting that in the CARS spectra of the Thy/GO complex (Table 4), there is only one band at 1,670 cm-1, whereas in the corresponding spectra of Thy, there are two bands at 1,655 and 1,660 cm-1, attributed to C4O and C2O stretching modes, respectively. A similar effect was observed in the case of SERS of Thy on gold in comparison with RS of those [35]; however, its nature could have another origin.

They were then resuspended in water or water containing 75 mM HCl and allowed to grow at room temperature for 1.5 hr. (A) Intracellular ROS accumulation was examined after treatment with 5 μg/ml of dihydrorhodamine 123. (B) Activated caspase-like activities were detected

using a FLICA apoptosis detection kit according to the manufacturer’s specifications. At least three independent cultures were tested and compared. The differences were deemed GSK872 cost 17DMAG manufacturer statistically significant by the Student’s t-test (p<0.05) Finally, to better understand the mechanism of cell death at the molecular level, we generated microarray gene expression profiles of S. boulardii cells cultured in an acidic environment. We found that a total of 947 genes were differentially expressed (log2 values greater than 2 or less that −2) of which 470 were up-regulated and 457 down-regulated (Additional file 1). Significantly, functional annotation Selleckchem ACY-241 revealed that the up-regulated genes were significantly (p<0.0005) over-represented in cell death pathways (Figure 5; Table 1). One of these up-regulated cell death genes, RNY1, encodes a RNase T2 family member that is released from the vacuole into the cytosol during oxidative stress to promote yeast cell death [49]. Since the vacuole is the organelle most responsible for pH homeostasis in yeast [50], this may suggest that a similar mechanism of cell death may be occurring in S. boulardii cells

cultured in an acidic environment. Finally, a significant majority of the other up-regulated cell death genes (80%) were ORFs involved in mitochondrial function, including numerous genes encoding proteins involved in the electron transport chain (Table 1). These microarray results together with our characterization of the cell death phenotype described above suggest that S. boulardii cells undergo PCD when they are cultured in acidic Demeclocycline conditions similar to those found in the stomach.

Figure 5 Functional classification/GO analysis of differentially transcribed genes in S. boulardii cells cultured in 50 mM HCl. Genes showing 2-fold or greater increase (up-regulated) or decrease (down-regulated) in response to an acidic environment were grouped in functional categories. Categories that are significantly enriched relative to the yeast proteome are marked (*: p<0.05; ***: p<0.0005) Table 1 S. boulardii cell death genes differentially expressed in an acidic environment S. BOULARDII CELL DEATH GENES DIFFERENTIALLY EXPRESSED IN AN ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT MCD1 NMA111 NUC1 TAH18 ATP1 ATP2 ATP7 COR1 COX4 COX5A COX6 COX8 CYT1 INH1 OYE3 PIN3 POR1 QCR2 QCR6 QCR7 QCR8 QCR9 QCR1O RIP1 RNY1 SDH1 SDH2 SDH4 UBX6 Saccharomyces boulardii cell death genes showing 2-fold or greater decrease (underlined) or increase (italics) in response to an acidic environment were identified using the Cytoscape 2.8.3 plugin BiNGO 2.44 after Benjamini & Hochberg false discovery correction for multiple hypothesis testing.

elegans Martinique BRFM 1378 RC/MART-10-78 (LIP) JN645105 – A. elegans Cuba BRFM 1074 – www.selleckchem.com/products/AZD1480.html MUCL 45380 – JN645061 JN645108 A. elegans French Guiana BRFM 1122 GUY 08-145 (LIP) JN645066 JN645111 ‘Trametes elegans’ Florida – – JV021237 – Pycnoporus P. cinnabarinus Belgium BRFM 146 -MUCL 30555 – JN645087

JN645129 P. cinnabarinus France BRFM 945 MOU 129 (LIP) JN645086 JN645128 P. coccineus Australia BRFM 939 – MUCL 38525 – JN645094 JN645136 P. coccineus China BRFM 6 IMB H2180 JN645091 JN645132 P. puniceus Cuba BRFM 941 -MUCL 47087 – JN645095 JN645137 P. sanguineus French Guiana BRFM 896 GUY 42 (LIP) FJ234188 JN645135 P. sanguineus Madagascar BRFM 283-MUCL 29375 – JN645089 JN645130 Leiotrametes L. menziesii New Caledonia BRFM 1281 CAL 09-202 (LIP) JN645071 JN645116 L. menziesii Martinique – FWI BRFM 1368 RC/MART-10-212 (LIP) JN645103 – L. menziesii Martinique – FWI BRFM 1369 RC/MART-10-74 (LIP) JN645085 JN645145 ‘Trametes lactinea’ Island of Mauritius Momelotinib order – – Damm 4703 – Leiotrametes sp. French Guiana BRFM 1050 GUY 08-20 (LIP) GU731566 JN645106 Leiotrametes sp. French Guiana BRFM 1056 GUY 08-225 (LIP) JN645059 – Leiotrametes sp. French Guiana BRFM 1080 GUY 08-167 (LIP) JN645063 – Leiotrametes

sp. French Guiana BRFM 1078 GUY 08-156 (LIP) JN645062 JN645109 L. lactinea Taiwan CBS 109427 – JN645076 JN645121 L. lactinea French Guiana BRFM 1251 GUY 09-110 (LIP) JN645069 JN645114 L. lactinea Guadeloupe – FWI BRFM 1370 RC/GUAD-10-181 (LIP) JN645102 – L. lactinea Guadeloupe – FWI BRFM 1371 RC/GUAD-10-42 (LIP) JN645104 – L. lactinea New Caledonia BRFM 1282 CAL 09-206 JN645072 JN645117 L. lactinea Thailand – – GQ982887.1 – Incertae sedis Lenzites warnieri France BRFM 972 ND 169 (LIP) JN645098

JN645140 T. cingulata Malawi MUCL 40167 – JN645075 JN645120 T. ljubarskyi France BRFM 957 MOU 139 (LIP) JN645097 JN645139 Others Hexagonia mimetes Zimbabwe MUCL39660 – JN645074 JN645119 Trametella trogii France BRFM974 ND 168 (LIP) JN645099 JN645141 Daedaleopsis tricolor France BRFM 954 MOU 132 (LIP) JN645096 Amino acid JN645138 Hexagonia nitida Corsica BRFM 1327 COR 09-272 (LIP) JN645082 JN645127 Sampling was enlarged with 6 sequences retrieved from GenBank: Trametes elegans JV021237J, T. aff. .junipericola AY684171, T. lactinea GQ982887 and Damm 4703, T. maxima AB158315 and Daedalea microsticta FJ403209 (Table 1). In addition, 41 nuc-ribosomal 28 s LSU sequences were downloaded from Genbank and were analyzed separately (Table 2). Table 2 List of Taxa and Genbank accession numbers for nucLSU Taxon Genbank Accession Number 28S rLSU Trametes L. betulinus AB368073.1 T. conchifer AY515342.1 T. Fedratinib cost gibbosa AY351924.1 T. gibbosa AB368117.1 T. gibbosa AY855905.1 Pseudotrametes gibbosa AJ488127.1 Pseudotrametes gibbosa AJ488126.1 T. hirsuta AY855910.1 T. hirsuta AY351922.1 T. hirsuta AB368118.1 T. junipericola AY855915.1 T. maxima AB158315.1 T. ochraceae AY855908.1 T. ochraceae AY855914.1 T. orientalis AY351920.1 C. polyzona AY351951.1 C. polyzona AY333817.1 T. pocas AY351919.1 T.

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Table 3 Correlation between virological parameters and markers of hemostasis Correlation H3N2 pH1N1 H5N1 H1N1 + H5N1 Influenza A PT -Titer total# NS -0.6 (-0.9—0.1) * NS -0.5 (-0.75- -0.1)* NS PT -AUC total# 0.8 (0.4-0.9)*** 0.7 (0.3-0.9)** NS 0.4 (0.1-0.7)* 0.4 LY3039478 clinical trial (0.2-0.7)** PT -Body VX-689 concentration weight NS 0.8 (0.4-0.9)** NS 0.5 (0.1-0.7)* 0.5 (0.2-0.7)** PT -Lung weight NS 0.6

(0.05-0.9)* NS NS 0.4 (0.05-0.6)* APTT -Titer total# -0.5 (-0.8 – -0.1)* NS NS NS NS APTT -AUC total# 0.8 (0.6-0.9)*** NS NS NS 0.3 (0.05-0.6)* APTT -Body weight NS 0.6 (0.2-0.9)** NS 0.5 (0.1-0.7)** 0.4 (0.2-0.6)** APTT -Lung weight NS NS NS NS 0.3 (0.1-0.6)* VWF-Titer total# -0.6 (-0.8-0.1)* NS NS NS NS VWF-AUC total# 0.7 (0.4-0.9)** NS NS NS NS NVP-AUY922 nmr VWF-Body weight NS NS NS NS 0.4 (0.1-0.6)* VWF-Lung weight NS NS NS NS NS D-dimer

-Titer total# NS NS NS NS NS D-dimer -AUC total# NS 0.6 (0.2-0.8)* NS 0.5 (0.1-0.7)* 0.4 (0.2-0.6 )** D-dimer -Body weight NS 0.7 (0.2-0.9)** NS 0.5 (0.2-0.7)** 0.5 (0.2-0.7)*** D-dimer -Lung weight NS NS NS NS NS TAT -Titer total# NS NS NS NS 0.3 (0.1-0.6)* TAT -AUC total# NS NS NS NS NS TAT -Body weight NS NS 0.6 (0.2-0.9)* NS NS TAT -Lung weight NS NS NS 0.5 (0.1-0.7)** 0.3 (0.01-0.5)* Virological parameters are listed in Table 1. This was also done for the complete influenza A group (H3N2 + pH1N1 + H5N1) and for the combination of pH1N1 and H5N1 because these two viruses are able to infect the complete respiratory tract instead of only the upper respiratory tract which is the case for H3N2. Pearson correlation coefficients are given if the values were statistically significant. *p <0.05 **p < 0.01 ***P < 0.001 if not significant NS is listed in the table. Using Bonferroni correction for multiple comparison significance threshold is lowered to p < 0.01. Therefore results marked with ** and *** are considered statistically significant correlations. Discussion The present study demonstrates, for the first time, procoagulant effects at the circulatory and tissue level in a ferret influenza

model, largely proportional to the severity of influenza virus infection. These findings are in line with earlier epidemiological, clinical, animal and in vitro data [6, 8, 13–15, 20, 22–24]. Ferrets PAK6 have been shown to be an adequate model to study the coagulation cascade [25–27] with PT and APTT normal values varying from 11.6-12.7 and 18.9-22.3 seconds respectively. This is comparable to our 104 pre-inoculation ferret samples (PT 11.7 (+/- 0.1) and APTT 19.8 (+/- 2.2)) [26].

sativa), can improve the fitness of their host find more plants and are therefore known as plant-growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB; [3, 12, 13]). In a recent study, we assessed the bacterial communities that occur within roots of rice plants by both cultivation-independent (i.e. more than 500 clones containing the 16S rRNA gene were sequenced) and cultivation-dependent approaches [14]. From the directly-obtained clone library, ca. 30% of the sequences were assigned to one unique operational taxonomic unit (OTU), defined at 99% sequence similarity as a member of the genus Enterobacter. In addition, Foretinib ic50 we obtained a high number of bacterial isolates (222) from the same samples,

by serial dilution on R2A agar. After screening these isolates to assess the number of different genotypes via BOX-A1R PCR, 84 distinct fingerprinting patterns were observed across all, using an 80% similarity cut-off level [14]. Preliminary analysis of the 16S rRNA genes of each of these groups revealed a suite of six independent (non-clonal) strains that were closely related to the most abundantly retrieved OTU from the clone library. This clearly demonstrated the predominance of Enterobacter-related types in LY2874455 clinical trial the rice

root bacterial community and indicated their potential functional importance. The 16S rRNA sequences also matched a sequence obtained from an Enterobacter sp. (denoted CBMB30), a rice endophytic bacterium second isolated in South Korea that was reported to have plant-growth-promoting properties [15]. In the current study, the six strains, divided into two related groups of three strains each, are further characterized. On the basis of the collective results obtained, we propose that they constitute two new species, which we denominate Enterobacter oryziphilus sp. nov. (strains REICA_084, REICA_142T and REICA_191) and Enterobacter oryzendophyticus sp. nov. (strains REICA_032, REICA_082T and REICA_211). Results and discussion Presumptive identification of strains Six isolates, obtained from different rice root samples, were grouped, by preliminary analyses, into two groups of three strains each, which both resembled,

by comparison of their partial 16S rRNA gene sequences, the dominant clones in a directly obtained clone library [14]. Analyses of the full 16S rRNA gene sequences of all isolates then revealed hits, at high levels of homology, with sequences belonging to members of the genus Enterobacter, including the type strains of several different species. Figure 1 gives a depiction of a maximum parsimony (MP) based phylogenetic tree, which used 1125 unambiguously aligned positions, 90 of which are informative under the parsimony criterion. The tree was constructed on the basis of a comparison of the six new isolates with a range of related (mostly Enterobacter) sequences. The topology of the tree was strongly supported by bootstrap analyses (Figure 1).

Figure 8a presents the 10-nm-thick Ag film deposited on glass, whereas Figure 8b shows an image of the uncoated substrate. Two-dimensional histograms containing surface height Necrostatin-1 molecular weight GSK872 mw values determined from the respective topographies are also shown. The obtained Ag

film exhibited a root-mean-square (RMS) roughness of 0.177 nm. The images (1 μm × 1 μm or 512 × 512 pixels) were automatically plane-fitted (to compensate for any sample tilts), and a color scale was used to represent the height distribution. The Z axes of the height histograms were scaled relative to the peak height. In addition, the surface of the evaporated Ag/glass film usually had an RMS roughness above 5 nm [13], which is an order of magnitude greater than that for the optical monitored ion etching treated E-beam coating with IAD films. Figure 8 AFM topography images of (a) an ultra-smooth, thin Ag film on glass (B270) and (b) an uncoated glass substrate (B270). (c,d) Histograms (2D surface selleck products height values) obtained from the respective topography images. Electrical properties The ideal work function of Ag is 4.4 eV, which is smaller than that of TiO2 (4 to 6 eV) [14] and higher than that of SKh (3.03 to 3.41 eV) [15]. When two layers are in contact with each other, the Fermi levels align in equilibrium by the transfer of electrons from

Ag to SiO2 and TiO2. The electrical properties of the system improve under Exoribonuclease these conditions. In this case, there is no barrier for the electron flow

between Ag and SiO2, which means that the electrons can easily move from the Ag layer to the SiO2 layer. According to Schottky’s theory, we expect high carrier concentrations in multilayer TAS films. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy Figures 9 and 10 show the XPS spectra of a TAS sample in the Si 2p, Ti 2p, O 1s, and Ag 3d regions. The same TiO2, SiO2, and silver peaks have also been clearly identified for other bimetallic clusters, revealing that our multilayer samples are composed of stable titanium oxide and silicon oxide films and contain pure Ag atoms. The observed peak positions are very close to those reported for ideal vacuum-evaporated TiO2, SiO2, and silver films, with the differences (including those between the 3d5/2 and 3d3/2 peaks for silver, 6.0 eV) also being exactly the same as the handbook values reported for zero-valent silver [16]. This observation suggests that most of the silver atoms in the TAS multilayers are in the zero-valent state. One would expect that a significant amount of the outer metal atoms is oxidized from Ag0 to Ag+1 upon thiolate formation, with a shift of the Ag 3d5/2 peak to higher binding energies (by 0.7 to 0.9 eV). Figure 9 Relationship between atomic percentage and etching depth, determined by XPS analysis. Figure 10 XPS analysis of the bonds. (a) The oxide bond. (b) The Si-O bond of SiO2.

Samples were centrifuged (5 min, 5200g) and the supernatant was used for buffer capacity measurements, i.e. the quantity of 1M NaOH that needed to be added to 1 ml the fungus extract in order to change the pH of the suspension by one unit. Proteolytic activity assays Proteolytic activity was measured spectrophotometrically using azocasein (Sigma-Aldrich Co) and the chromogenic p-nitroanilide substrates: Glp-Ala-Ala-Leu-pNa, N-benzoyl-Arg-pNa, and Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-pNa (prepared by The State Research Institute of Genetics and Selection of Industrial Microorganisms, Dorsomorphin nmr Russia). Total and class-specific proteinase

activity towards azocasein was tested by determining the rate of hydrolysis after homogenizing pieces of fungus garden material with a pestle in an Eppendorf

tube using 2.5 volumes (w/v) of distilled water (in order to keep the natural pH of the sample). Samples were centrifuged at 8000g for 15 minutes and the supernatant transferred to a clean tube. Doramapimod molecular weight Ten μl of extract was mixed with 15 μl of 2% (w/v) azocasein solution and incubated for 1 hour at 26°C. The reaction was terminated with the addition of 120 μl of 10% TCA after which the suspension was centrifuged for 5 minutes at 14000g and 140 μl of supernatant was added to an equal volume of freshly prepared NaOH (1M). Absorbance was measured at 440 nm using a VERSAmax microplate reader. all Reactions in control samples were terminated immediately after adding azocasein. The difference between treatment and control absorbance (A440, at t°C 26°C, 1 hour) was used as a relative measure of enzyme

activity. All measurements were GDC-0973 research buy performed four times producing means that are presented ± SE. In order to measure class-specific proteinase activity, the assays were performed in the presence of a protease inhibitor that specifically targets proteases of a certain class. The decrease in activity caused by the inhibitor was used as the class-specific activity value. The inhibition assays were performed using azocasein as described above. 10 μl of sample was preincubated for 3 hours at room temperature with 1 μl of inhibitor resulting in the following final concentrations of the inhibitors (all purchased from Sigma Chemicals Co): For serine proteinase inhibition we used phenylmethane-sulphonul-fluoride (PMSF, 0.57 mM), tosyl lysil chlormethyl ketone (TLCK, 10 μM) and tosyl phenilalanine chlormethyl ketone (TPCK, 10 μM). For cysteine proteinase inhibition we used L-trans-epoxysuccinyl-leucyl-amide-4-guanidino-butane (E64, 5 μM). Activity was also measured after the addition of thyol protecting agent DTT (10mM), which may increase the activity of cysteine proteinases. For metalloproteinase inhibition we used ethylendiaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA, 8 mM) and for aspartyl proteinase inhibition we used pepstatin (2 μM).

Regarding tEPEC E2348/69, no internalized bacteria was found in the microscope fields observed. Enteropathogens may gain access to basolateral receptors and promote host cell invasion in vivo by transcytosis through M cells [46]. Alternatively, some infectious processes can cause perturbations in the intestinal epithelium, e.g., neutrophil migration during intestinal inflammation; as a consequence, a transitory destabilization in the epithelial barrier is promoted exposing the basolateral side and allowing bacterial invasion [47]. With regard to tEPEC, it JNJ-64619178 solubility dmso has been reported that an effector molecule, EspF is involved in tight junction disruption and redistribution of occludin with

ensuing increased permeability of T84 monolayers [48, 49]. Whether EspF is involved in the invasion ability of the aEPEC strains studied in vivo remains to be investigated. Figure 5 Transmission electron microscopy of polarized and differentiated T84 cells infected via the basolateral side. A) aEPEC 1551-2. B) aEPEC 0621-6. C) prototype tEPEC E2348/69. Monolayers were infected

for 6 h (aEPEC) and 3 h (tEPEC). Arrows indicate tight junction and (*) indicates a Transwell membrane pore. In conclusion, we showed that aEPEC strains expressing distinct intimin sub-types are able to EPZ015938 order invade both HeLa and differentiated T84 cells. At least for the invasive aEPEC 1551-2 strain, HeLa cell invasion requires actin filaments but does not involve microtubules. In differentiated T84 cells, disruption of tight junctions increases the invasion capacity of aEPEC 1551-2. This observation could be significant in infantile diarrhea since in newborns and children the gastrointestinal epithelial barrier might not be fully developed [45]. As observed in uropathogenic E. coli [50], besides representing a mechanism of escape from the host immune response, invasion could also be a strategy for the establishment of persistent disease. It is possible, that the previously reported association of aEPEC with prolonged diarrhea [8] is the result of limited invasion processes. However, the in vivo relevance of our in vitro observations Vitamin B12 remains to be established. Moreover,

further analyses of the fate of the intracellular bacteria such as persistence, multiplication and spreading to neighboring cells are necessary. Conclusion In this study we verified that aEPEC strains, carrying distinct intimin sub-types, including three new ones, may invade eukaryotic cells in vitro. HeLa cells seem to be more susceptible to aEPEC invasion than differentiated and polarized T84 cells, probably due to the absence of tight junctions in the former cell type. We also showed that actin microfilaments are required for efficient invasion of aEPEC strain 1551-2 thus suggesting that A/E lesion formation is an S63845 cost initial step for the invasion process of HeLa cells, while microtubules are not involved in such phenomenon.